This is an entirely new translation of Lunyu, produced from scratch, that brings new language, new expressions and new insights to Kongzi’s philosophy.

This book, Lunyu Analysis, analyses Kongzi’s words, his philosophy and the official traditional interpretation of his ideas that formed the backbone of the Neo-Confucian philosophy that was used in the education system and ultimately to govern China from the Ming Dynasty until 1905.

Through this work, we can understand Kongzi’s philosophy. We can also see how his ideas were reinterpreted by Ru thinkers, in particular Zhu Xi (1130-1200), the most important Confucian scholar and whose work, Lunyu Jizhu, became the standard official interpretation of Kongzi’s ideas, to produce a different philosophy, one that in many ways is the reverse of Kongzi’s original intention.

The main text of Lunyu Analysis comprises three parts:

1. A translation of the original text.

The translation closely follows the traditional interpretation of individual words and passages in Lunyu by Zhu Xi.

The text has been translated at three levels: word by word, passage by passage and by referring passages with similar themes and language to each other. This process ensures that Kongzi’s words have been accurately translated, the meaning of each passage expressed as clearly and as fully as possible, and that the philosophy as a whole has been accurately represented so that it does not contain logical contradictions that could come as a result of translating one way in one place and a different way in another.

In passages where Zhu Xi’s interpretation can be matched to Kongzi’s words with sufficient accuracy that it works on these three levels, his interpretation is generally used as the backbone of the translation. This ensures that the translation is not affected by the translator’s personal bias. It also maintains a close connection to the traditional interpretation which helps our understanding of the official viewpoint.

When Zhu Xi’s interpretation does not work on these three levels, the author has reflected upon ideas from other commentators such as Liu Baonan (1850s), Qian Mu (1963), Yang Bojun (1980), Li Zehou (2007), Wang Qiugui (2008) and Qin Xia (2012), to produce a more accurate interpretation of the passage.

Each word in the original text of Lunyu is translated as closely as possible. Preference is given for one-to-one translations: one word of the original text is translated into one word in English or one cluster of words in English comprising key terms plus grammatical words that hold the sentence together and make it flow so that it sounds like realistic spoken English.

Any words that are then necessary to add to the English text to make the meaning of the original text clearer or more precise are added in square brackets to clearly demark the author’s interpretation from what Kongzi has actually said. This separates Kongzi’s words from the author’s, providing a clear and unadulterated version of what he actually said.

Words in the text have been translated by using a Classic to Modern Chinese Dictionary, Gudai Hanyu Cidian, and occasionally Shuowen Jiezi, to understand their meaning, that meaning is then matched to English words using thesauruses, mainly Thesaurus.com and Google. In this way, by avoiding Chinese to English dictionaries, this work provides a richer, fresher translation, one that adds new words to the lexicon of Classical Chinese translations.

Only after completing the translation was this work compared to other English translations. The translation was checked in its entirety against the work of two other translators, Ryckmans (1997) and Slingerland (2003), whose work was chosen because they are modern, accurate and sufficiently different from each other.

When a passage in the other works was encountered that appeared better translated than in this work, the author went back to his original sources and retranslated the passage until it appeared to exceed the other two works in accuracy, clarity and depth of understanding.

By not referring to other English translations during the formative stage of the translation, this work has been produced relatively independently of other English works and for this reason brings new insights to key concepts and phrases and presents the whole work in a new and clearer light.

This work is simple, clear and closely in line with the official Chinese tradition in its interpretation and at the same time is modern, fresh and ground breaking in its language. Through the use of square brackets to separate the author’s interpretation from what Kongzi actually said, it presents a translation that adheres very closely to the original text.

With the benefit of having read earlier English translations, the author avoids the errors of earlier works and helps push forward the study and understanding of Confucian theory.

2. Comments on each individual passage

Each individual passage from Lunyu is followed by a comment that explains the meaning of the passage and its significance in Kongzi’s theories. The comments have been written by the author and include quotes from Zhu Xi, the commentators he quotes and from other commentators on Lunyu, Kongzi and Confucian thought, both ancient and modern. Altogether, the comment section contains several hundred translations of passages from other works as well as a few quotes that were originally written in English.

The comments in Lunyu Analysis differ from most other works in that no attempt is made to use Lunyu as a springboard for understanding ancient China in general. Nor do the comments try to compare Kongzi to other theorists or philosophers.

Instead, the discussion is focused on understanding Kongzi and his theories through his own words and the views that he has expressed. The book takes the stance that by trying to understand the events and ideas that are discussed in the text through Kongzi’s perspective as revealed in the text, we will be able to recreate an understanding of his opinions and by putting his opinions together, we can build up a clear picture of his philosophy.

Explaining Kongzi’s views can involve explaining the background and meaning of events and facets of ancient China. Therefore, there is discussion and analysis of ancient China, but the aim is to use knowledge of ancient China to understand Lunyu and not to use Lunyu to understand ancient China.

The comments do not discuss ancient China except in terms of how it relates to the text and understanding Kongzi’s view of it. It does not compare Kongzi to other people, particularly people from the Western tradition, but seeks to understand Kongzi through his words and what they reveal about his opinions and philosophy.

Different interpretations of Kongzi’s philosophy are sometimes discussed and analysed in order to compare the merits of each, however the principle aim is not to provide equal coverage to all views but instead to focus, through the vantage point of the traditional orthodox interpretation, upon what Kongzi actually says, its meaning and significance in the overall philosophy. Some weaker interpretations are analysed to explain their weaknesses so that more time can be spent discussing the better interpretations.

By working with the traditional interpretation and carefully analysing the meaning and significance of each passage, the writer has been able to build up an understanding of both Kongzi’s original philosophy and also how it was interpreted by later generations, in particular in the orthodox views of Zhu Xi.

This separation of Confucianism, meaning the philosophy of Kongzi, from Ru thought or Neo-Confucianism, is an important contribution of this work. It allows us to understand the significant intellectual differences between pre-Han China and late empire, particularly the Song, Ming and Qing Dynasties. It provides a framework for understanding the development of the main intellectual thread that has run through Chinese culture for 2500 years and that still forms the basis of understanding of traditional Chinese thought today.

3. Modelling of Kongzi’s philosophy and how it was interpreted by Zhu Xi

This section presents Kongzi’s philosophy as a series of connected models. The models derive from the close translation and interpretation of the text as outlined in point 1 above and the understanding of Kongzi’s views on various topics in point 2.

They are a novel way of representing Kongzi’s philosophy and are an efficient way of present his views simply, clearly and comprehensively. They mark a departure from the usual way his ideas are represented, which is to list and discuss the meaning of key terms in the text.

The models show how the core concept of ren (empathy) is expressed, how ren fits into the larger concept of junzi (leader), how junzi fit into the social structure and how a nationwide society is held together. They provide a picture of how Kongzi’s philosophy works at various scales and how the key elements fit together.

With the model established, it then becomes possible to analyse things from Kongzi’s perspective. In the book, Zhu Xi’s Ru philosophy is analysed using these models of Kongzi’s philosophy and through this is shown the major differences between the two and the weaknesses of Ru thinking when seen from Kongzi’s viewpoint.

The models are then used to analyse events in Chinese and world history to provide a novel interpretation on turning points in history. The models are finally used to analyse political structures and provide a “Confucian” model of business.

This book explains Kongzi’s philosophy and shows how it differs from the later official interpretation. It presents Kongzi’s philosophy as a living set of ideas that can be applied to politics and organisations both historically and in the world today. It radically improves our understanding of Chinese philosophy.